Teachers who work with English as a Second Language learners will find ESL/ESOL/ELL/EFL reading/writing skill-building children's books, stories, activities, ideas, strategies to help PreK-3, 4-8, and 9-12 students learn to read.
Language Acquisition
Assessment Considerations for Young English Language Learners Across Different Levels of Accountability
Author: Linda M. Espinosa and Michael L. López; The National Early Childhood Accountability Task Force and First 5 LA
Summary: A recent report prepared for The National Early Childhood Accountability Task Force looks specifically at assessment for three- and four-year-old English language learners in early education programs. "Assessment Considerations for Young English Language Learners Across Different Levels of Accountability" examines the unique role of assessment in early childhood education in the context of young English language learners' diverse backgrounds and needs. The authors discuss assessment at four levels of accountability: assessment for instructional improvement, assessment for identification of special needs, assessment for program accountability, and assessment for research and accountability. The report also includes an overview of current ELL assessment measures and current ELL assessment strategies.
Tags: Differentiated Instruction; Language Proficiency;
Target Population: Preschool
Research Questions the Report Poses:
- What are the implications of the nascent linguistic and cultural diversity among young children on dual language and literacy development during preschool years?
- What are the main considerations for young ELLs across the different levels of accountability?
Findings:
- Sequential bilingual children may have somewhat different patterns of development than monolinguals in certain aspects of language development in the short term. This may include vocabulary, early literacy skills, and interpersonal communication.
- It is important for early childhood educators to understand that code switching (switching languages for portions of a sentence) and languages mixing (inserting single items from one language into another) are normal aspects of second language.
- There is an enormous degree of variability and diversity of young children (beyond ethnic, to include English exposure, poverty, etc)
Policy Recommendations:
- The child must be assessed in the home language as well as English. Knowing how the child is progressing in the home language is important for long-term academic success and educational planning.
- Parents and other family members must be included in the assessment process to share information about the child's language competence.
- It is recommended that all children who speak a language other than English in the home receive an Individualized Language Plan (ILP), with information on: current language competence, strategies for including family activities and community resources.
- Assessment information should be frequently collected and reviewed by all the teaching staff to monitor changes in language and overall development.
- All procedures, assessments, and results should be reviewed for cultural bias and accuracy by a person familiar with that cultural group and language, and if possible a bilingual educator.
Linda M. Espinosa and Michael L. López. (2007). Assessment Considerations for Young English Language Learners Across Different Levels of Accountability. The National Early Childhood Accountability Task Force and First 5 LA. Retrieved from: http://www.pewtrusts.org/uploadedFiles/wwwpewtrustsorg/Reports/Pre-k_education/Assessment%20for%20Young%20ELLs-Pew%208-11-07-Final.pdf.
Ensuring Academic Success for English Learners
Author: Laurie Olson, UC Linguistic Minority Research Institute
Summary: This report highlights nine elements of a strong program, based on three decades of research. Recommended best practices include accessible preschool programs, support for newcomers of all ages, and a focus on English language development.
Tags: Books and Other Reading Materials; Curriculum; Differentiated Instruction; Intervention; Language Proficiency; Motivation; Parent Involvement and Outreach / PTA; Reading;
Target Population: Preschool, Elementary, Middle, High School
Research Questions the Report Poses: What strategies or programs can educators adopt to create schools in which ELLs learn and thrive?
Findings:
A comprehensive system of schooling for ELLS includes the following nine elements:
- High quality and accessible preschool education
- Supports for newcomers to meet needs of transition
- A comprehensive program of English Language development
- A program providing full access to challenging curriculum
- High quality instruction and materials
- Inclusive and affirming school climate
- Valid, comprehensive, and useful assessments
- Strong family and community partnerships
- Schools structured to meet the particular needs of English learners.
Policy Recommendations:
- Invest in building a qualified educator workforce;
- Build a meaningful accountability system for English learners;
- Assure that educators have the materials they need to deliver high quality English Language Development;
- Demonstrate new models of successful schools for English learners
- Read the full report (128KB PDF)*
To order a hard copy of the report, contact:
University of California
Linguistic Minority Research Institute
4722 South Hall
Santa Barbara, CA 93106-3220
Olsen, L. (2006). Ensuring Academic Success for English Learners. University of California: Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
Getting Ready for Reading: Early Phoneme Awareness and Phonics Teaching Improves Reading and Spelling in Inner-city Second Language Learners
Author: M. Stuart
Summary: Previous studies demonstrate that phoneme awareness training, particularly when combined with letter–sound teaching, results in improved reading and spelling development. This study builds upon those findings by including children learning English as a second language, who have typically been excluded from previous studies.
Tags: Instructional Programs; Phonics; Phonological Awareness;
Target Population: Preschool, Elementary
Research Questions the Report Poses:
- Is it possible to accelerate phonemic awareness and skills in ELL children by using a specified whole class teaching procedure ("Phonics Handbook") for 12 weeks during the first year of formal schooling?
- If so, does this acceleration lead to more successful development of reading and spelling skills at the end of the second year at school?
Findings:
- Early, structured, focused and rapid teaching of phoneme segmentation and blending skills and of grapheme–phoneme correspondences does accelerate development of these skills and acquisition of this knowledge in 5–year–olds, including ELLs.
- Acquiring these skills and developing reading and writing abilities early (at beginning of formal schooling, if not before) gives students a long–term advantage in school.
- Most children can very rapidly acquire the concepts and knowledge taught, and can do so without the necessity for small–group teaching.
- Because the materials used here were designed by a teacher for teachers to use, the positive results demonstrate that teachers need very little training or support to use these materials to good effect.
Policy Recommendations:
None given
Stuart, M. (1999). Getting ready for reading: early phoneme awareness and phonics teaching improves reading and spelling in inner–city second language learners. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 69, 587-605.
How Long Does It Take English Language Learners to Attain Proficiency?
Author: University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute/ Kenji Hakuta, Yuko Goto Butler, and Daria Witt
Summary: This report compiles findings related to how long it takes English language learners to become proficient in speaking English and how long it takes them to master enough English to be successful in classrooms where all academic content is in English. The report draws on findings from four schools. Two schools are in the San Francisco Bay area and two schools are in Canada. The authors collect their own data from the California schools and rely on previous research for the Canadian schools.
Tags: Comprehension; Language Proficiency; Transfer of Literacy Skills;
Target Population: Preschool, Elementary, Middle, High School
Research Questions the Report Poses: How long does it take English language learners to develop oral proficiency and academic proficiency in English?
Findings:
- Rapid English language acquisition is unrealistic.
- The two California districts used in the sample are considered the most successful teaching English to limited English proficient students. In these high performing districts:
- Oral proficiency takes 3 to 5 years to develop; and
- Academic English proficiency takes 4 to 7 years to develop
Policy Recommendations:
California should begin a longitudinal survey to track the normative development of ELL students.
To order a hard copy of the report, contact:
The University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute
University of California, Santa Barbara
4722 South Hall, MC 3220
Santa Barbara, CA 93106-3220
Hakuta, K., Butler, Y.G., and Witt, D. (2000, January). How long does it take English language learners to develop oral proficiency and academic proficiency in English? Stanford, CA: University of California Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
Improving Reading Across Subject Areas with Word Generation
Author: Joshua F. Lawrence, Claire White, and Catherine E. Snow, Harvard Graduate School of Education. Center for Research on Educational Achievement and Teaching of English Language Learners.
Summary: Using the evidence that reading comprehension supports vocabulary development and that vocabulary development supports reading comprehension, the authors describe the relationship between these two processes as one of reciprocal causation. It has been widely noted that less able students are likely to fall farther and farther behind if they struggle with learning processes linked by reciprocal causation. Fortunately, there is evidence that vocabulary instruction can have an important and lasting impact on student word learning. There is reason to think, then, that a robust vocabulary intervention that targets academic language may improve vocabulary and reading comprehension in the short run while also supporting the struggling reader's facility at learning new words independently. To study this further, the authors have conducted a quasi–experiment to assess the effectiveness of the "Word Generation Program," an intervention firmly grounded in what is currently known about effective practice, while also casting light on how enhanced vocabulary levels relate to improved reading comprehension. To this end, the research team compared the academic word–learning of schools that chose to implement the program versus schools that chose not to.
Tags: Comprehension; Reading; Vocabulary;
Target Population: Elementary School
Research Questions the Report Poses:
- What is the relationship between reading comprehension and vocabulary development?
- How effective is the "Word Generation Program" in improving academic word–learning?
Findings:
- Participation in 20–22 weeks Word Generation curriculum was equivalent to two years of incidental learning. However, these results are skewed due to differences in timing of pretest, meaning that while the Word Generation did improve word–learning, it was not as significant as this result would indicate.
- Boys learned more words than girls.
- Participants in Word Generation Program learned more words than non–participants.
- Language minority students learned words at a relatively faster rate than English–only students in treatment schools, but not comparison schools.
- Students who benefited most from participation in Word Generation had higher MCAS scores than students with similarly improved vocabularies acquired without Word Generation exposure.
- A longitudinal quasi–experiment follow–up showed that students who participated in the intervention maintained their relative improvements at both follow–up assessments. This indicates that Word Generation does in fact promote long–term vocabulary and reading comprehension.
Lawrence, J.F., White, C., Snow, C.E. (2011.) "Improving Reading Across Subject Areas with Word Generation." Center for Research on Educational Achievement and Teaching of English Language Learners. Retrieved from: http://www.cal.org/create/resources/pubs/pdfs/improving-reading-across-subject-areas-with-word-generation.pdf
Linguistic Life Expectancies: Immigrant Language Retention in Southern California
Author: Ruben G. Rumbaut, Douglas S. Massey, and Frank D. Bean
Summary: In what serves as a response to Samuel P. Huntington';s Who Are We? The Challenges of America's National Identity, the authors research the question of assimilation and English acquisition in Spanish-speaking households in southern California. The authors conclude that while the density of Spanish speakers in Southern California remains strong, the tendency to lose one's native language by the third generation at the latest mimics the patterns observed for earlier European immigrants to the U.S.
Tags: Bilingualism / Biliteracy; Fluency; Language of Instruction; Language Proficiency; Latino ELL Students;
Target Population: Pre-school, Elementary, Middle, High School, Post-Secondary
Research Questions the Report Poses: How long can immigrant populations be expected, on average, to remain fluent in their languages of origin?
Findings:
- The probability is 97% that a great grandchild of Mexican immigrants will not speak Spanish
- Mexican Spanish can be expected to have a life expectancy of 3.1 generations
- Guatemalan and Salvadoran Spanish can be expected to have a life expectancy of 2.8 generations
- Spanish spoken by other Latin Americans can be expected to have a life expectancy of 2.6 generations
Policy Recommendations:
N/A
To order a hard copy of the report, contact:
N/A
Rumbaut, R.G., Massey D.S., and Bean, F.D. (2006). Linguistic Life Expectancies: Immigrant Language Retention in Southern California. Population and Development Review, 32(3), 447-460.
Middle-to-High School Transition for English Language Learners: Promising School-Based Practices
Author: Lara, J., & Harford, S.; Smaller Learning Communities Program
Summary: This paper examines the nexus among three current areas of concern for secondary educators and policymakers: restructuring high schools into small learning communities (SLCs); supporting the transition of students into the ninth grade; and instructing English language learners (ELLs). Research in these three separate areas has become increasingly abundant and relevant as national educational policy focus has shifted toward high school improvement. ELLs are enrolled in large numbers in urban schools, which have lately been the recipients of high school reform initiatives. Yet, despite the abundant presence of ELLs in these schools, little information is available on how the distinctive linguistic, academic, and social needs of ELLs have been considered in high school reform policies and programmatic initiatives.
Tags: Intervention; Language Proficiency; Motivation; Placement; Struggling Readers;
Target Population: Middle, High School
Research Questions the Report Poses:
- What is the best middle to high school transitions for ELLs?
- What happens to the ELL moving from eighth to ninth grade in a SLC?
- How are his or her unique educational needs considered?
- Is the instructional program designed to seamlessly integrate English for speakers of other languages (ESOL) instruction with the SLC or ninth?grade transitional programs?
- Is the student required to choose between accessing linguistically appropriate instruction and accessing the benefits of a career or technical academy?
- Does the student's de facto status as an ELL preclude him or her from taking part in programs and courses within the SLC schools?
Findings:
- In order to ensure that ELL students catch up with their peers, the school must place emphasis on intense ELD instruction.
- Teachers should use specialized instructional methodologies to build their abilities to teach content to ELL students.
- Beneficial to ELL transitions are the flexible delivery and scheduling of academic and non-academic supports.
- It does not appear that any one school is implementing a coherent service delivery plan. Instead, there are examples of isolated implementation of best practices in a given area, but not across the school or for all ELL students
Lara, J., & Harford, S. (n.d.). Middle-to-High School Transition for English Language Learners: Promising School-Based Practices. Smaller Learning Communities Program. Retrieved January 13, 2011 from: http://www.edweek.org/media/final-middletohighschool.pdf
Reparable Harm: Fulfilling the Unkept Promise of Educational Opportunity for California's Long Term English Learners.
Author: L. Olsen. Californians Together.
Tags: Fluency; Intervention; Language Proficiency; Placement; Struggling Readers; Transfer of Literacy Skills;
Target Population: Secondary, High School
Research Questions the Report Poses: Which of the English learners are left behind? What steps can be taken to prevent this?
Findings:
- The majority (59%) of secondary school English Learners are "Long Term English Learners" (in United States schools for more than six years without reaching sufficient English proficiency to be reclassified). In one out of three districts, more than 75% of their English Learners are Long Term.
- California school districts do not have a shared definition of "Long Term English Learners." Most districts lack any definition or means of identifying or monitoring the progress and achievement of this population. Only one in four districts has a formal definition or designation for identifying, counting, serving or monitoring services for these students - and their definitions vary in the number of years considered "normative" for how soon English Learners should have reached proficiency (range from five to ten years).
- English Learners become "Long Term" English Learners in the course of their schooling experience. Several factors seem to contribute to becoming a Long Term English Learner: receiving no language development program at all; being given elementary school curricula and materials that weren't designed to meet English Learner needs; enrollment in weak language development program models and poorly implemented English Learner programs; histories of inconsistent programs; provision of narrowed curricula and only partial access to the full curriculum; social segregation and linguistic isolation; and, cycles of transnational moves.
- By the time Long Term English Learners arrive in secondary schools, there is a set of characteristics that describe their overall profile. These students struggle academically. They have distinct language issues, including: high functioning social language, very weak academic language, and significant deficits in reading and writing skills. The majority of Long Term English Learners are "stuck" at Intermediate levels of English proficiency or below, although others reach higher levels of English proficiency without attaining the academic language to be reclassified. Long Term English Learners have significant gaps in academic background knowledge. In addition, many have developed habits of non-engagement, learned passivity and invisibility in school. The majority of Long Term English Learners wants to go to college, and are unaware that their academic skills, record and courses are not preparing them to reach that goal. Neither students, their parents nor their community realizes that they are in academic jeopardy.
Olsen, L. (2010). Reparable Harm: Fulfilling the Unkept Promise of Educational Opportunity for California's Long Term English Learners. Californians Together. Retrieved January 6, 2011 from: http://www.californianstogether.org/
The Effect of Attending Full–Day Kindergarten on English Learner Students
Author: Jill S. Cannon, Alison Jacknowitz, Gary Painter
Summary: A significant and growing English learner (EL) population attends public schools in the United States. Evidence suggests they are at a disadvantage when entering school and their achievement lags behind non–EL students. Some educators have promoted full–day kindergarten programs as especially helpful for EL students. We take advantage of the large EL population and variation in full–day kindergarten implementation in the Los Angeles Unified School District to examine the impact of full–day kindergarten on academic achievement, retention, and English language fluency using difference–in–differences models. We do not find signficant effects of full–day kindergarten on most academic outcomes and English fluency through second grade. However, we find that EL students attending full–day kindergarten were 5 percentage points less likely to be retained before second grade and there are differential effects for several outcomes by student and school characteristics.
Target Population: Early Education
Research Questions the Report Poses: What is the impact of full–day kindergarten on the academic achievement and English language acquisition of ELLs?
To order a hard copy of the report, contact:
To access the full article one must subscribe to the journal or a database that features it.
Cannon, J.S., Jacknowitz, A., Painter, G. (2011). "The effect of attending full–day kindergarten on English learner students." Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 30 (2): 287–309. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pam.20560/abstract.
The Relationship Between English Proficiency and Content Knowledge for English Language Learner Students in Grades 10 and 11 in Utah
Author: X. Barrat, Min Huang; Regional Educational Laboratory at WestEd; National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance
Summary: The study examines data from Utah tests given to 10th and 11th graders on language proficiency as well as content knowledge for both math and language arts.
Tags: Language Proficiency;
Target Population: High School
Research Questions the Report Poses: What is the relationship between level of English proficiency and content knowledge? How do English language learners compare in academic performance with native English speakers?
Findings:
- The higher students scored on the English proficiency, the higher they scored on both math and language arts exams.
- English language learner students scored lower than non-English learners in both language arts and math.
- Use the study's findings in discussion of rules on when students should be moved out of English language learner status and in creation of assessment programs and curriculum for English language learners.
Policy Recommendations:
Use the study’s findings in discussion of rules on when students should be moved out of English language learner status and in creation of assessment programs and curriculum for English language learners.
Crane, E.W., Barrat V. X., and Huang, M. (2011). The relationship between English proficiency and content knowledge for English language learner students in grades 10 and 11 in Utah. (Issues & Answers Report, REL 2001-No. 110). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Regional Educational Laboratory West.
The Role of English Teachers in Educating English Language Learners (ELLs)
Author: National Council of Teachers of English (ELL Task Force)
Summary: This position paper is designed to address the knowledge and skills mainstream teachers need to have in order to develop effective curricula that engage English language learners, develop their academic skills, and help them negotiate their identities as bilingual learners. More specifically, this paper addresses the language and literacy needs of these learners as they participate and learn in English-medium classes. NCTE has made clear bilingual students' right to maintain their native languages. Thus, this paper addresses ways teachers can help these students develop English as well as ways they can support their students' bilingualism. In the United States bilingual learners, more commonly referred to as English language learners, are defined as students who know a language other than English and are learning English. Students' abilities range from being non-English speakers to being fully proficient. The recommendations in this paper apply to all of them.
Tags: Comprehension; Curriculum; Language Proficiency; Reading; Struggling Readers; Vocabulary; Writing;
Target Population: All
Research Questions the Report Poses: What are the needs of ELLs? How can teachers address these needs?
Findings:
- Teachers need to get to know their students and about their home situations in order to be most effective.
- Writing well in English is often the most difficult skill for English language learners to master. Thus teachers should be aware that English language learners may not be familiar with standard American writing procedure like drafting, revision, editing, workshop, conference, audience, purpose, or genre.
- The best way to help students learn both English and the knowledge of school subjects is to teach language through content.
Policy Recommendations:
- Colleges and universities should offer pre-service teachers preparation in teaching ELLs including coursework in language acquisition, second language writing and readings, and culture classes.
- High school English departments should integrate programs that welcome and help acculturate late-arrival immigrant and refugee students with low literacy skills.
- The report also provides numerous practical recommendations for strategies in the classroom in various subjects.
To order a hard copy of the report, contact:
The National Council of Teachers of English
1111 W. Kenyon Road, Urbana, IL 61801-1096
Phone: 217-328-3870 or 877-369-6283
Fax: 217-328-9645
NCTE ELL Task Force. (2006). NCTE Position Paper on the Role of English Teachers in Educating English Language Learners. National Council of Teachers of English: Urbana, IL.
The Teacher's Guide to Diversity: Building a Knowledge Base
Author: Elise Trumbull and Maria Pacheco. The Education Alliance at Brown University. Northeast and Islands Regional Educational Laboratory (LAB).
Summary: The Teacher's Guide to Diversity: Building a Knowledge Base (Trumbull, Pacheco, 2005), published by The Education Alliance at Brown University, offers a wealth of information about multicultural influences on human development, culture, cognition, and language. This two-volume set, which is downloadable as a pdf file, covers such topics as: challenging cultural assumptions about parental involvement in school, supporting students' ethnic and academic identity in school, cultural differences in communication style and language use, and factors that influence second-language acquisition in children. (Volume I: Human Development, Culture, and Cognition; Volume II: Language) Also included is a separate presenter's manual with activities for each unit in the two volumes, which makes this publication easy to use for workshops and professional development.
Tags: Bilingualism / Biliteracy; Fluency; Language of Instruction; Language Proficiency; Phonics; Phonological Awareness; Transfer of Literacy Skills; Vocabulary;
Target Population: All
Research Questions the Report Poses:
VOLUME I:
- What are the reigning theories of human development, cognition, culture, and the relationship between them?
- How does identity development intersect with achievement motivation?
- What is intelligence?
- How can our knowledge of human development inform our work as educators working with an increasingly diverse student population?
- What is known about how to work successfully with families from non-dominant cultural groups?
VOLUME II:
- What is language proficiency and how does it interact with culture, human development, learning, and schooling?
- How can teachers best support English language learners (ELLs) and speakers of different English dialects?
- What are the current views of literacy acquisition and best approaches to literacy instruction?
- How can assessments eliminate bias based on language?
Findings:
- Most important to the process of addressing the needs of learners from a wide range of backgrounds is a positive, ongoing process of exploration and constructive conversation among the professionals who serve such students and between professionals and students' families.
- Meaningful approaches to human development and learning have become increasingly multi-disciplinary.
- Language indexes culture; language symbolizes culture; culture is partially created by language.
Policy Recommendations:
Teacher's Guide to Diversity includes a third volume, "The Presenter's Manual," which provides support for preparing for and conducting classes or workshops. The manual contains activities and suggested homework assignments, organized by the volume with which they are associated.
Trumbull, E., Pacheco, M. (2005). The Teacher’s Guide to Diversity: Building a Knowledge Base. Providence, RI: The Education Alliance at Brown University. Retrieved from http://www.alliance.brown.edu/pubs/teach_guide_diversity/.
Vietnamese American Experiences of English Language Learning: Ethnic Acceptance and Prejudice
Author: Jeffrey Labelle. Journal of Southeast Asian American Education and Advancement
Summary: This article investigates the effects of ethnic acceptance and prejudice on English language learning among immigrant nonnative speakers. During 2004 and 2005, the author conducted participatory dialogues among six Vietnamese and Mexican adult immigrant English language learners. Even though many of the adult immigrant participants experienced ethnic prejudice, they also developed strategies to overcome anxiety, frustration, and fear. The dialogues generated themes of acceptance, prejudice, power, motivation, belonging, and perseverance, all factors essential to consider when developing English language learning programs for adult immigrants.
Tags: Asian ELL Students; Bilingualism / Biliteracy; Fluency; Motivation;
Target Population: All
Research Questions the Report Poses:
- What are some nonnative English speakers' experiences regarding the way native speakers treat them?
- How have nonnative English speakers' experiences of ethnic acceptance or ethnic prejudice affected their learning of English?
- What do nonnative English speakers think they need in order to lower their anxiety as they learn a new language?
- What can native English speakers do to lower nonnative speakers' anxiety?
- What can nonnative English speakers do to lower their anxiety with native English speakers?
Findings:
- All of the participants experienced both ethnic acceptance and ethnic prejudice, though they tended to be positive and accepting.
- Successful immigrants overcome their fear and anxiety by making friends with native and nonnative speakers alike.
- To achieve greater communicative competence English learners must take the initiative to speak English, while native English speakers must learn strategies for listening and understanding, accepting and reinforcing the nonnative speakers.
- The two ethnic groups of participants viewed prejudice and learning English differently: the Vietnamese believed they could move past prejudice and learn English as a means to belong in American culture, while the Mexican participants fostered a nostalgia for and stronger desire to return to their homeland.
- The six participants in this study all recognized the importance of encouragement and motivation in learning English, whether by needing English to communicate in ethnically mixed neighborhoods, or community ESL classes showing them they were not alone in learning English.
- The participants all expressed the opinion that individual effort and perseverance are keys to progress in acquiring English: one needs to take action, reach out, and not give up regardless of the experiences of prejudice.
Policy Recommendations:
The authors recommend:
- Mixed ESL groupings in class — combining immigrants from different countries so they cannot resort to home language.
- Closed-caption reading methodology
- Encouraging immigrants to make friends who are native speakers
- Improved workplace ESL programs
- Cultural survival techniques — acquiring goods and services in home language to buffer transition, while still venturing out into English–speaking places.
LaBelle, J. (2007.) Vietnamese American Experiences of English Language Learning. Journal of Southeast Asian American Education & Advancement. Retrieved from: http://jsaaea.coehd.utsa.edu/index.php/JSAAEA/article/view/4
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